Bedtime Biography: Isaac Newton
Learn the truth behind the legend
By James Gleick
Category: Biography & Memoir | Reading Duration: 30 min | Rating: 4.6/5 (221 ratings)
About the Book
Narrated by Cathleen McCarron
Music by Federico Coderoni
Isaac Newton (2003) takes readers on an insightful tour of the life and mind of one of history’s greatest thinkers. It’s more than a plain account of Newton’s life and accomplishments. Instead, we get a revealing glimpse of his habits, obsessions and eccentricities. It all makes for a revealing and rewarding biography.
Who Should Read This?
- Students of history
- People interested in learning how the modern world was shaped
- Scientists curious about the mythology behind their interests
Introduction
Bedtime Biographies are best when listened to. Check out the audio version to get the full experience! A man sits under an apple tree. For hours he’s been contemplating a tricky problem, and he just can’t get his head around it.
So he sits there under the tree and thinks. Suddenly, it hits him – not the answer to his problem, but an apple. An apple falls from the tree and hits the man on top of the head. This surely hurt – but it also knocked an idea into his brain. Within an instant, the solution to the problem appears! He’s solved it!
He jumps up to write down his idea and tell the world of his discovery. You’ve probably guessed by now that the man in question is Isaac Newton, one of the most famous scientists of all time. If there’s one thing we all know about the man it’s that a fallen apple pushed him to discover gravity. Well, there is so much more to Isaac Newton and his life than this single, almost certainly made-up story. In the next 30 minutes or so, let’s explore his life and work together.
Chapter 1: Chapter 1
Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day, 1642. His birthplace was a modest English farmstead in Woolsthorpe, a tiny village in the county of Lincolnshire. Newton's father, a man who’d never learned to read or write, died before he was born. This left his mother, Hannah Ayscough, to care for her newborn son alone.
As a child, Newton had a fantastically curious mind. He was fascinated by everything around him, from the functioning of gadgets to the mysteries of the natural world. He was especially interested in the movements of the sun. He was transfixed by the glowing sphere as it moved across the sky every day. To entertain himself, he channelled all this curiosity into small, rudimentary experiments. In one experiment, he repurposed a short length of string to chart the trajectory of the sun as it traversed the sky.
He also sketched three-dimensional sundials and other geometric figures. He even noticed that the moon’s movements were similar to those of the sun. Quite an amazing observation for a young child. When Newton was 12, he moved to the nearby town of Grantham to live with a family friend named William Clarke, who was also an apothecary. And he enrolled in King’s School, a local grammar school. At King’s School, Newton grappled with the basics of Latin, Greek, Hebrew and theology.
In arithmetic class, he learned how to measure areas and shapes, as well as methods for surveying land. It was a typical education for the time. Surprisingly, Newton didn’t thrive; his grades were not exceptional. However, he did excel in applying the concepts he learned at school to pursuits outside the classroom. Soon enough, he put this knowledge to use by creating lanterns, watermills, and windmills at home. As Newton’s happy childhood gave way to his teen years, he grew increasingly sullen.
He was plagued by deep existential despair about his future. He knew he was talented, but he had little direction. What should he make of himself? What profession should he pursue? His family pushed him to take a traditional path. They thought he should stay in the country, raise a family and do little more than tend sheep on his family’s farm.
But Newton felt his calling was elsewhere. Newton’s schoolmaster at Grantham also saw a different future for the young scholar. The schoolmaster recognized his potential, and so, with help from Newton’s uncle, he worked to secure Newton a place at Cambridge University. In June 1661, Newton began life at Trinity College. Then as now, this was a respected institution and widely considered the best of Cambridge University’s sixteen colleges. Even with its prestigious name and stunning gothic architecture, student life at Trinity was not glamorous.
Student accommodations were dingy and the work was very hard. Yet Newton was determined to study his way to success. All he needed was his notebook, a few candles, ink and a chamber pot. His drive, and his inquisitive mind, would take care of the rest. Trinity College, like many leading institutions at the time, based much of its curriculum on the work of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Professors drew on his ancient texts to expound on everything from law and ethics to theories of natural science.
But more modern scientific ideas, like those of the Italian astronomer Galileo, were also taught. For people today, it may be hard to grasp just how radical Galileo’s theories were. However, to Newton, they weren’t only shocking; they were alluring. Even basic concepts such as motion were cast in a completely new light. For centuries, educated people considered motion both a process and a state. In other words, an object, such as an apple, could be in motion in two different ways.
An apple thrown through the air, moving through space, was in motion. However, an apple sitting on a table, slowly rotting in place, was also considered to be “in motion. ” In fact, any change of state was considered motion, including a stone being sculpted into a statue. However, Galileo argued that the concept of motion should only refer to the state of movement through space. This idea, while seemingly subtle, makes it much easier to study motion in rational, mathematical terms. It was an exciting time to be a student of science!
Chapter 2: Chapter 2
In 1664, England was struck by an outbreak of the dreaded bubonic plague. The pandemic was so severe that Cambridge University was forced to close its doors. Most students retreated to their homes, happy to stay healthy and spend a few months taking a break from their books. Newton, however, was different.
He saw this quarantine as an opportunity to delve deeper into his studies. When Newton returned home, he set about his research with a renewed fervor. Sequestered away in his room, he began experimenting. His first focus was optics, light, and color. He tinkered with candles, mirrors, and prisms, attempting to uncover the fundamental logic behind light. His curiosity knew no bounds.
In one especially dangerous experiment, he trained his looking glass on the sun, staring at the burning sphere until his eyes hurt. It was at this time that Newton began his revolutionary work on motion. Now, we all know the story of Newton suddenly discovering gravity after an apple conked him on the head. But that story isn’t true. In reality, he developed his theory of gravitation after months of careful scientific experimentation. You see, Newton was convinced that by making mathematical observations of moving objects he could discover the fundamental principles that governed their movements.
And, to do this, he spent day after day toying with objects – dropping them, rolling them down slopes, and tossing them into the air. He watched carefully and recorded all his observations in dozens of notebooks filled with drawings, figures, and measurements. Some pages were covered in diagrams of points moving toward the center of a circle. Others depicted points moving parallel to one another. As his work progressed, it became clear there was a logic to it all. As the plague continued, Newton continued his work.
By the time Cambridge University reopened its classrooms, his efforts had begun to pay off. After countless hours at his desk, Newton was beginning to sketch out a full theory concerning the science of motion and the nature of gravity. In October 1667, the year he returned to Cambridge, Newton was summoned by his mathematics professor, Isaac Barrow. Barrow asked the 24-year-old scholar to help him prepare his lectures. Of course, he obliged. Before too long, Newton was himself giving lectures and wowing students in the process.
The administration took notice. When Barrow vacated the highly-respected Lucasian Chair of Mathematics, in 1667, the open position was awarded to Newton. Lucasian Professor wasn’t a mere empty title either. In fact, it came with many perks. Thanks to this position, Newton now had his own laboratory at Trinity College and the freedom to pursue his ideas without interruption. With the new resources available, Newton’s work flourished like never before.
Within a few years, he engineered a stunning new device: a prototype for the first reflecting telescope. Older telescopes had been refracting, and they weren’t much good. They tended to produce images that were small, dim, and distorted. In comparison to these, Newton’s handmade telescope was a wonder. Its special arrangement of lenses let much more light in, and the observer could see distant objects with greater clarity. In proper hands, this device could even provide clear views of Venus and Jupiter with ease.
Newton's invention was a hit within the growing scientific community of England. Before too long, the Royal Society, the foremost scientific institution in Britain, got wind of Newton’s accomplishment. They wanted to know more. So, in 1662, Newton was invited to publish his work on light and color. In the paper he produced, Newton described an experiment he had conducted in his lab. By using specialized tools, he’d directed sunlight through multiple prisms.
And the effect had been breathtaking. Refracted by the prism, the light had split into individual beams, each a different color. Newton proposed a controversial theory to explain this refraction. He declared that white light was made up of particles of many colors. Yet, when it passed through prisms, these participles were separated, revealing light’s true composition. It was a bold assertion.
It was so bold that the paper ruffled a fair few feathers at the Royal Society. One society member, a philosopher named Robert Hooke, was particularly offended by the argument. He denounced the paper and became a lifelong critic of Newton’s work. Newton was surprised by the mixed response his publications generated. The young scientist sincerely believed his findings on optics and light were empirically sound and scientifically valuable. Still, a few members of the Royal Society viewed them with suspicion.
Leading the pack of skeptics was Hooke. In papers and personal conversation he would disparage Newton’s findings, often dismissing them as nonsense or a mere “hypothesis. ” Many older scientists agreed. In their eyes, it was unconventional and improper for such a young professor to defy orthodoxy. The chilly reception was a setback for Newton, who was sensitive by nature. He withdrew from public life in order to sulk and rethink his approach.
He had two options: He could give up on his aggressive experimentation. Or he could press forward and present robust mathematical proof of his work. Newton chose the latter path. For another two years, he buried himself in isolation with only his tools, notebooks, and theories. Finally, he emerged with another paper. Rather than publish the paper from his home, Newton traveled to the Royal Society in person and discussed his ideas in a lecture.
Once more, Hooke, now the Secretary of the Royal Society, opposed him, responding with pointed questions and light mockery. This back-and-forth tension between Newton and Hooke was stressful for the younger scientist; however, it was also beneficial. The stern criticism Newton received only strengthened his resolve to be indisputably correct. In his eagerness to best Hooke, Newton worked harder and thought more thoroughly than he might have otherwise. Most importantly, Hooke pressured Newton to produce mathematical proofs for his assertions. This meant engaging in months and years of diligent research to ensure every piece of a theory fitted together perfectly.
Such dedication and precision became an essential element of Newton's future work. In counterbalance to skeptics like Hooke, Newton also had staunch supporters. Chief among them was a man named Edmond Halley, a renowned English astronomer and mathematician. If his name sounds familiar, it’s because his work tracking the night sky resulted in the discovery of a major comet, one that still bears his name. When Halley wasn’t gazing at the stars, he was supporting Newton financially. He believed in his colleague's work so much that he bankrolled the publication of Newton’s first book in 1686.
It was a smart move. The book was titled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, or the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. It is now considered one of the most important scientific works of all time. In it, Newton lays out what he calls the three fundamental laws of motion. The first law states that bodies in motion stay in motion unless met with resistance. The second law states that force generates motion.
The third and final law declares that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Each assertion, though seemingly simple, was backed up with thorough data and diagrams. In all, it was a monumental achievement. Upon its publication, even former skeptics at the Royal Society hailed Newton as a formidable thinker.
Chapter 3: Chapter 3
Newton’s first book was still warm from the presses when he began preparing the next updated edition. He desired to make the work more accessible so that the whole world could benefit from his ideas. While working on this new, improved edition of the Principia, Newton got his biggest break yet. In 1703, his great rival Robert Hooke died.
After a brief reshuffling of roles, Newton was elected as the new head of the Royal Society. He took to the position with particular aplomb, pushing his fellow scientists to abandon research into mysticism and the occult and focus more thoroughly on empirical pursuits. While Newton’s initiatives met with some initial pushback, he eventually succeeded in honing the Society’s direction. In the end, he was so successful that he managed to hold the role of president for 25 more years. Around this time, Newton, never one to slow down, added another feather to his cap. He was appointed the head of the Royal Mint.
This was no small title. In this position, Newton was put in charge of England’s currency. At first glance, this may seem like an odd career move for an esteemed scientist. But when you consider Newton’s unique skill set, it becomes clear that he was a logical choice for the role. As Europe’s major economies began to modernize, mathematics became increasingly important in all manner of world affairs. Correct figures and data were needed to process shipping projects, population statistics, and all types of trade arrangements.
A sound and functioning currency was an important component in this new world of political arithmetic. Newton had previously spent a few years as Warden of the Mint, so he was already familiar with its inner workings. But when he was officially appointed to the post of Master of the Mint, he was prepared to make big modernizing changes. His most successful reform was a complete redesign of the nation's currency. His “great recoinage” made Britain's money harder to counterfeit, which saved the country a fortune. With this task accomplished, Newton’s respectability was beyond question.
People were finally listening to him and taking his ideas seriously. Newton’s scientific acumen was unrivaled, but he wasn’t the only genius kicking around Europe during the Enlightenment. There was also the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. But, rather than collaborate, the two thinkers developed a deep and bitter rivalry. The friction came from a disagreement about who had invented calculus. While it appears that both mathematicians arrived at the calculating system independently, each thought the other had copied his work.
What really complicated the issue, though, was that Newton’s claims were based on work he had not published. He had initially discovered infinitesimal calculations during those fruitful years he’d spent away from Cambridge during the plague. Some of this work appeared in his second book, Treatise on the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colors of Light, and other elements were referenced in statements released by the Newton-led Royal Society. However, as Newton never clearly laid out his thinking, Leibniz did not believe him. The debate outlived them both, simmering on for decades. In fact, even as Leibniz neared death in 1716, he wrote to a friend one last dig at his rival, “Adieu the vacuum, the atoms, and the whole philosophy of Mr Newton.
” Newton died on March 31, 1727. Despite his humble beginnings, he departed the world a superstar of the scientific community. He’d been knighted and was even buried at Westminster Abbey, in London, alongside many of Britain’s monarchs. But that’s not the end of his story. Newton’s advancements helped bring the world out of the dark ages and into the modern world where nature was understood in terms of rules and laws. But many of his concepts and ideas couldn’t be proved in his lifetime.
For instance, according to one of his theories, the Earth bulged at the equator, due to gravity and the planet’s movement. A ten-year-long French expedition established this hunch to be empirically true in 1733 – six years after Newton’s death. Many of Newton's theories were so accurate that they wouldn’t be improved until hundreds of years later. It took the coming of Albert Einstein to lead the way for the next wave of advances in physics. And yet even Einstein admitted that his discoveries were built on the foundation of Newtonian physics. When volumes of Newton’s research were discovered in the 1930s after a distant relative's estate sale, it came to light that Newton had a secret hobby.
The outspoken rationalist had practiced alchemy – the less scientific precursor to chemistry – his entire life. In other words, he’d been obsessed with the occult. When you think about it, it makes sense. Newton sought to enforce order where there had once been chaos. His defense of mathematics and reason may be his most famous contribution to that project, but that same spirit meant he was just as willing to embrace the unknown, however eccentric. You’ve reached the end of this Bedtime Biography.
The End
Thank you for listening. Why not pause listening now so you can stay in a relaxed state? And if you’re off to bed now, I wish you a good night’s sleep.
About the Author
James Gleick has written to great acclaim on the history of science and the impact of technology. His writing has garnered him the PEN/EO Wilson Literary Science Writing Award and the Royal Society Winton Prize for Science Books. His books have been finalists for the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award. His previous books include The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood (2012) and Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman (1992).